Political Geography
bagher ghalibaf; mahmood vasegh; Hadi Ajili; shahabeddin shafi
Abstract
Game theory is a well-known theory in political studies, international relations and interdisciplinary research, which is widely used in the analysis of phenomena in different dimensions and at the national, regional and global geographic levels. Although the concept of "competition" plays a key role ...
Read More
Game theory is a well-known theory in political studies, international relations and interdisciplinary research, which is widely used in the analysis of phenomena in different dimensions and at the national, regional and global geographic levels. Although the concept of "competition" plays a key role in the drawing and formation of game theory, in spite of that, the scientific literature of geopolitical knowledge has not benefited from it to investigate the phenomena. For this purpose, the geopolitical explanation of game theory in geopolitical systems and the introduction of this concept to geopolitical analysis and explanation is the topic of the upcoming article. This article tries to answer the question of how to explain the structure and function of game theory in geographical environments with the approach of geopolitical systems. In response to this question and with an explanatory descriptive method based on Saunders' research methodology model, the hypothesis of the article is that "the theory of games in competitions, conflicts, cooperation and convergences and other patterns of geopolitical relations and in complex geopolitical systems with at least one objective geographical source deals with, has the role of modeling and drawing operational solutions, and by receiving data and values from geopolitics, it brings the complex geopolitical system to a new balance and order". The findings of the research show that game theory is the subject of social, political and international relations studies, and in particular, due to the centrality of "power and competition" in this theory, it is considered a topic of discussion in geopolitical science. Since the function of game theory is considered in geopolitical systems, the authors' interpretation of the concept of system is "complex geopolitical system" with the components of complexity theory.
Mahmood Vasegh; Ahad Mohammadi
Abstract
Extended Abstract
Introduction
The final objective of social sciences is to seek objective truth, so scientists are seeking realism in science, and this is a term that one of its meanings implies the "objective" conception of reality. Thus, the most fundamental problem in methodology for scientists ...
Read More
Extended Abstract
Introduction
The final objective of social sciences is to seek objective truth, so scientists are seeking realism in science, and this is a term that one of its meanings implies the "objective" conception of reality. Thus, the most fundamental problem in methodology for scientists is that what is objectivity? How can one integrate objectivity in the process of knowing the facts, realities and coincidence of these matters together? How can one set aside a biased notion? The most important issue of any type of epistemology and science is to create a balance between objectivity and subjectivity in science. If an objective experiment does not lead to subjective and methodical rules and laws, then science and knowledge will not be formed, and if subjective rules and laws cut out from the objective reality, realism will be lost. In the other words, the central axis of the questions of epistemology is the "value of cognition", and this seeks to show that what is the criterion of identifying "facts" from false and contradictory ideas to reality? According to the above, objectivity and validity in various sciences, including geography, are of fundamental positions, and different geographic schools have taken different positions in this regard, which directly relate to the results of the research. In this paper, we are seeking to find out what are positions of methodology schools in geography in relation to objectivity and validity of geographic propositions? What are conclusions given to these positions? Which position can have a scientific position in geography? In this paper, we have tried to emphasize political geography in various propositions.
Review of Literature
Objectivity, an attribute of thought at the time that this thought is true. When the objectivity of scientific propositions, spoken, it can be applied in three meanings: 1. correspondence with reality; 2. The possibility of universal evaluate and judge; and 3. Free from personal values, presuppositions and beliefs. The scientific method has three stages of Problem-finding, theorizing, and validation. In between, the criteria for validating propositions and statements are correspondence with reality and logical compatibility. The purpose of logical compatibility is reasonableness, harmony, cohesion and consistency, and ultimately the compatibility of propositions and statements with rational and logical principles, is such that it is acceptable to the minds, clear and self-evident. The validation of theories in the field of empirical sciences (such as geography) is posterior, and theories are inductively endorsed with a degree of probability, rather than deductive proof.
Some of the studies that have focused on the problem of "objectivity and validity" include some articles and books such as Biyabanki, M. “At Interpretation of objectivity; look at the position of objectivity of scientific propositions in various schools of philosophy of science” (2012); Dirbaz, A. “Scientific objectivity and religious attitude” (1998); and Shiroudi, M. “Validation of Hermeneutic Methodology in the Humanities and Islamic Sciences” (2013). The books of Dr. Soroush such as (What is Science? What is Philosophy?, Knowledge and Value, A lecture on Philosophy of Science- Society), and works by Karl Popper, such as Realism and the aim of Science and the Book of The Logic Of Scientific Discovery can also be mentioned.
Method
The present research, due to its philosophical and logical nature, is classified under the theoretical and fundamental research. This research is based on a descriptive-analytical (logical) method and the topics and contents of this collection are documentary and library type.
Findings and discussion
In this paper, various schools of positivism, hermeneutics, phenomenology, Frankfurt, postmodern, and post-structuralism were examined in terms of objectivity and validity of geographic propositions, and it was shown that since critical schools finally lead to relativism, they do not endorse objectivity and validity of geographic propositions, and in this respect they face the problems of epistemology. Finally, it was shown that geographic realities and their recognition as well as evaluation and determination of accuracy or inaccuracy of these hypotheses will be possible through realistic and precise research within the hypothetical-deductive method and rational-empirical approach.
Conclusion
According to the results of this paper, the concept of objectivity in geography can be considered from three perspectives: 1. Although geography is one of the validity sciences and geographic concepts have a valid and abstract position, the above-mentioned phenomena and concepts are objective and realistic out of mind, and phenomena such as vegetation of gardens, roads, bridges and buildings, farms, villages, cities and other geographic phenomena of the same valid nature are objective and real phenomenon. 2. The other meaning of objectivity of geography as an empirical science is that geographic research is a general and universal, and the study of geographic phenomena, hypotheses, and theories is not considered to be monopolistic or individual but is available to all researchers. All geographers are able to examine, for example, the relationship between the Earth's rotation and transition around the sun, with the advent of the night and day, and the various seasons, and / or the possibility of examining the relationship between the geographical location of each area and its climatic conditions, causes of various geographic perspectives, and etc., available to all geographical researchers; and 3. As with other empirical sciences, geographic studies in order to evaluate and judge geographic hypotheses and theories use objective criteria independent of the subjectivity of individuals. These criteria, which are the same criteria for validation in science, are based on a realistic approach that includes the following two principles: a) the principle of correspondence with reality and b) the principle of compatibility with the foundations of reason and logical compatibility. Therefore, briefly, it can be said that the meaning and validity of geographic propositions are as follows: 1. The real and objective nature of geographical phenomena and processes, and propositions about them; 2. Publicity and universality of geographic research; and 3. Determine the value and validity of geographic hypotheses, propositions and theories by adapting them to the criteria of "reality" and "rational compatibility".
Samira Chenari; Mahmuod Vasegh; Zeynab Farnam
Abstract
Extended abstract
Introduction
One of the main elements of the life is water. Water is the most important part of the survival and life, which in case of shortage, an inherent competition and conflict on it will be raised among different geographical residents. No country will maintain its economic ...
Read More
Extended abstract
Introduction
One of the main elements of the life is water. Water is the most important part of the survival and life, which in case of shortage, an inherent competition and conflict on it will be raised among different geographical residents. No country will maintain its economic and political stability unless being sure of its water resources. Since Iran is located in the dry and semi-arid region of the world, it has always faced sever limited water resources to meet its population needs in different parts. Given the level of precipitation as well as unequal distribution of water resources in different parts of the country, the water resources and the optimal management of these resources has become important for Iran, as well, it turn to a Hydro-politic issue. Hydro-politic issues of Iran in a national scale are formed under the influence of national policies and the water resource management. The water transfer solution from regions with a high water level to dry regions is considered as the most important options for the water management in Iran. Regardless of economic and technical problems, This issue in Iran has always faced the social and political implications within the framework of the crisis and Hydro-politics challenges.
Theoretical Framework
Hydro-politics, as an important subject of political geography which examines the role of water in political behaviors, consists of different approaches such as conflict and collaboration, conflict and interaction among individuals and groups. It has been defined as the efforts to exercise the domination and exclusive use of water resources. The Hydro-politics can be explained as the study of conflicts and collaboration on the distribution of water resources among political units, or the study of the interactions of political units on the water resources at the local, national and regional levels, accordingly the concepts of Hydro-politics challenges at the local, national and regional scales will be formed. Therefore, if there is a Imbalance between water supply and the intensity of its demand in the place, then a crisis would be arisen and when this imbalance cannot be solved using a managerial strategy, then the Interaction would be replaced the conflict, and the Hydropolitics would be formed either in the local dimension and in the national or global dimensions.
Methodology
The present study was conducted through the descriptive-analytical approach to answer the following question, "How has the water transfer in Iran become a Hydro-politics challenge?"
Discussion
The management of water resources of Iran with a centralized and governmental structure, along with tangible and intangible policies, has led the water shortage to be changed into water crisis and eventually, has created the Hydropolitics challenges in Iran. The water shortage and crisis are the important concepts in Hydro-politics. They have a fundamental role in forming the Hydro-politics challenges. The water crisis on a national scale can cause stress and conflicts. These stresses have been resulted from water shortage in the central regions of Iran, for example, Isfahan, Yazd, Kerman and their adjacent regions with a relatively high water level in Zagros Mountains. In the other words, the Hydro-politic challenges in the central regions of Iran are formed based on the sustainability of the water crisis in these areas.
Since water is considered as a national property and capital in the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, then the government and the ministry of power have the authority to solve the inter-sectional problems. Therefore, a centralized management of using the water resources has been formed without the participation of local institutions. Water transfer from regions with relatively good hydrologic power in Iran to places with a water shortage without consideration of its social, political and economic consequences, particularly the lack of attention to Iran's political geography regionalism, would be caused intense local and regional competition on the acquisition of water resources. It also leads to the negative political activities of people and authorities.
Conclusion
This study has evaluated the Hydro-Politic factors of water transfer. It has been concluded that in spite of the fundamental limitations and water resources shortage in Iran, the Hydro-Politic challenges of water transfer have been caused by the weaknesses of management and tangible and intangible policy makings in the management of water resources. The negative political regionalism is among the main effective factors on the political activism. If these actions and challenges continue, then they would have negative social, economic and political and ultimately security consequences.
Mahmoud Vasegh; Seyyed Abbas Ahmadi; Mohammadreza Hafeznia; Seyyed Mohammad Isanedjad
Abstract
Extended abstract
1. Introduction
Nowadays, the term geopolitics is widely used in various fields of study, and is used to analyze and explain political and geographical events at different levels. Unfortunately, despite the widespread use of this term, due to the dominance of the functionalist approach ...
Read More
Extended abstract
1. Introduction
Nowadays, the term geopolitics is widely used in various fields of study, and is used to analyze and explain political and geographical events at different levels. Unfortunately, despite the widespread use of this term, due to the dominance of the functionalist approach in geopolitical studies, theoretical and conceptual dimension of geopolitics has been neglected and has not been considered so much by the experts. Therefore, some questions like what geopolitics is and what its notion is remain unanswered. The purpose of this article is to provide answers to the above questions through paying attention to the theoretical and epistemological dimensions of geopolitics, and due to the lack of theoretical research in this field, this article intends to provide a meaningful explanation of the nature and meaning of this term.
2 .Theoretical Framework
When we talk about science, of course, we must be in the realm of philosophy. In other words, what is stated, if be meticulous and exploratory, needs to be in the realm of philosophy of science. From the perspective of the philosophy of science, the new science has two logico and empirico attributes. Indeed, two pillars of the new science are logic-rationality and observation-experience. The problem is the inception of science. Science in the solution of the problems grows through the creation of hypotheses. The absence of problems equals the lack of science.
Every epistemic is knowledge of something, but epistemology is a cognition of self-knowledge. Epistemology is a cognition which, by deliberation of knowledge, discusses about the possibilities, types, ways, realms and the validity of it. The most important topic of epistemology is the discussion of the value and validity of knowledge and truth or falsity of propositions.
The term geopolitics was first introduced in 1899 by Johan Rudolf Kjellén. Historically, since Aristotle, the influence of geographic factors on politics has been considered. In the medieval, thinkers such as Montesquieu and in the Islamic civilization, Ibn Khaldūn and others have discussed about this issue. In general, it can be told that geopolitics studies international relations and conflicts from a geographical perspective.
3 .Method
This paper, because of its philosophical nature, is a fundamental-theoretical research, and in terms of purpose, it is a part of the problem-solving study (solving the philosophical - mental problems). According to its theoretical nature, the sources used in this paper are document and library resources. This paper has been developed within the framework of studies on the philosophy of science with a realistic approach and in the form of logical and epistemological descriptions and analyzes. The methodological accost to developing this research is critical rationalism. It is clear that this paper is written in the form of scientific-research articles.
4. Discussion
Geopolitik (Swedish equivalent of Geopolitics) is a solid compound noun. Unlike most compound words in European languages, it was not a bygone word, and it is not much older. Johan Rudolf Kjellén invented the term in 1899 under the influence of Friedrich Ratzel's doctrines. This word consists of two sections Geo (γη or γαια) and Politik (πολιτικα). Both sections are original Greek words and come from Latin to new European languages. However, how is this word from an epistemological perspective? As mentioned, this term is compound in nature, and consists of two distinct parts of Geo and Polytic. These two sections are different in nature. The first section, Geo, is a concrete, general, and essential phenomenon, but the second section, Politik, is not an essential phenomenon, rather it is an abstract and a dummy phenomenon (i.e., made by humans). According to this argument, the ratio of knowledge and value dominates between these two sections, and they relate to the subject of concrete and abstract theorems. Thus, in such a framework, the relationship between these two sections can be explained in this compound word.
5. Conclusion
But how we can analyzed geopolitics epistemological nature? The geopolitics concept is the product of three categories: Geographic Resources, At least two agents and the existence of a relationship of interaction, opposition, competition and domination between agents. All three cases are objective facts; however the concept of geopolitics is subjective and created in the mind.
In the context of Geopolitics’ conceptualization from the epistemological point of view, it must be said that this concept is created in the mind and with the help of reason by making a comparison between the three realities of Geographic source, at least two actors and the relation of interaction, opposition, competition and domination among them. Naturally, these three objective facets are concrete phenomena and make the geopolitics’ conceptual structure a rational abstract phenomenon.
The result of concrete and abstract combinations is nothing but an abstract combination. Due to the dual nature of the geopolitics’ components, (i.e., the concrete Geo and abstract politik), the combination of two parts of geopolitics itself will be an abstract phenomenon.
Atefe Golfeshan; Mahmood Vasegh
Abstract
1. Introduction
According to many experts, a new approach to the concept of power in the context of modern thought begins with the views of Thomas Hobbes. In a common thought, Hobbes is known as the original designer of modern political thought in the field of power, because before his works, a few ...
Read More
1. Introduction
According to many experts, a new approach to the concept of power in the context of modern thought begins with the views of Thomas Hobbes. In a common thought, Hobbes is known as the original designer of modern political thought in the field of power, because before his works, a few writing in the technical areas of philosophy –in areas of epistemology, ontology, physics and ethics -were written. He designed "political science" literally by using the modern scientific methodology, and with putting center of the "power" in the realm of politics, he deal with this question that how can influence in the power’s matter and know that? Unlike previous philosophers, his concern wasn't about how the power should be. One of the reasons that caused the attention of scholars and political geographers to his works is the concept of power. The word of power is important in geopolitics and actually the geopolitics is called the science of power. Hobbes in his theory paid attention to this word and with his vision and ideas tried to introduce this concept and how it functions. It might be our era’s crisis that causes our closeness to Hobbes’. This closeness is due to Common points that is placed between our needs and Hobbes’ knowledge. We need to understand the phenomena of our environment and our understanding of what is experimental and non- experimental; we are inevitably drawn towards Hobbes . We also want to possess instruments of power and influence for stable security. His look is very important to political geography and geopolitics, because of his works about power.With this introduction, in this paper we paid to review of the philosophical foundations of Hobbes's thought and its impact on geopolitics.
2. Methodology
In this study, we have tried to review and explain the philosophical thought of Thomas Hobbes. His thoughts influence on topics of political geography. We have used from works of Hobbes to collect information about the effects of his philosophical opinions on the thoughts and topics of political geography. For the analysis of data we have also used analytic – descriptive method.
3. Results & Discussion
Hobbes can beregarded as the first thinker who tried to bring politics in to ascience. He used experimental method in this regard .He took a mathematical and empirical approach to analysis ,human and social trends and policies which isn’t considered part of the natural sciences.
He implemented the empirical principles for politics. Hobbes unlike Aristotle and scholastic thinkers didn’t have a divine look to the government and people issues. He had a totally realistic and mechanical view on this matter. He believed in the equality of human beings. Passions and desires, they will do any thing to achieve, including eliminating the other people. In his view, achieving power is in the nature of all human beings for two purposes. The fear of losing assets by force or to gain more power. In other word, power is one of human’s desires for earning more power that enables him to stop others to take it away from him.
In fact , Hobbes had a pessimistic look tow a rdshumans, but some of them were the result of his time crisis which has already been discussed .In spite of his pessimistic view of human nature, he had a kind of rationalist view of man and his environment influenced by intellectual developments occurred during sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Also, he believes that wisdom leads human to get rid of his natural state. From Hobbs’ perspective, the fear of death is driving force of wisdom which pushes human to create rules to have security and peace. Hobbes had scientific look to the existence of policy and related to pics such as, power, government, people and land which are the basic principles of the geopolitics .He considered these topics as the real issues and took them into account of science. Hobbes's categorized this knowledge as normative knowledge. Therefore, he used the scientific method to explain and review. To portray the man, power, society and the best form of government he used the Galileo’s methodology .According to Galileo, the complicated movements come from simple move ments’ interaction which are invisible but mainly responsible for the movement. Hobbes divided society and politics in to the small estparts then combined them after Simplifying. This method is used to understand phenomena.
Hobbes sees no difference between the methods of the natural sciences and the social sciences .His political philosophy is the sequence of natural philosophy . In this way, Hobbes’ method was more a positivistic approach and based on the observation. Although, one can say that in the field of analysis, it is also used from the
hypothetical deductive method (descriptive analysis).Hobbes used more of causal explanation to review and explain issues. He began explaining how human and human moralities are causes of formation of the government. In other words, from writer’s perspective, I think he knew the necessity of absolutism on effect of bad human nature and fear of each other and their need for peace and security. From the other view, his description was ultimate since there is always a causal explanation followed by an ultimate explanation. Hobbes ‘ultimate go al of forming a totalitarian government was to achieve peace and security for the people and avoid war, particularly the Civil War.
Hobbes in his Leviathan established his society based on respect for the individual and anthropocentric, concerned with the welfare of the community to know that every person has freedom of choice to choose their way of life. But on the other hand, Hobbes believed in a government that has full authority and thus can be taken all the liberties of the individual away from him. Hobbes had a holistic approach to see society and government and looked at the entire population of the metropolitan, but in the debate of man, he spoke of respect for the person and had minim al look to analyze phenomena such as war, and detected the basic principles of war.
Finally, he were more attributed to partial view due to his interest in the Galileo method (combine - analysis), and tried to found some principles for social pheno menaasempiricalp he no men a with breakdown of society and mankind to their smallest element. Then, after finding these principles, head a pted them to the whole community by using the logical reasoning. At this time, he saw the man and society as macro principles and gave so cial law to the who le community.
4. Conclusion
A society that Hobbes portrays and finally, he prescribes and recommends it to achieve human happiness is from his view of man and society of that day. Some of the gaps Hobbes created in ontological and epistemological foundations of political theory than classical political philosophy provide appropriate themes for the growth and formation of political philosophy of many scholars after him. Although, some believe that human society and social phenomena can’t be studied with scientific method like empirical phenomena, and stated principles and specific rules for them, because in contrast to empirical phenomena these phenomena are constantly changing; but, Hobbes could explain policy and society scientifically by using the scientific method and realistic and mechanical approach for the first time.
Though some of his words are doubtful and there are some dualities in, his philosophical thought and methodology had impact on so many thinkers after Hobbes and guided the m to the pursuit of science and policy issues related to power and security. Hobbes is mostly called as one of the defenders of authoritarianism and absolute state, and for his tendency to monopolize and centralize power and special priority that he gives to social order he is considered as a conservative. Although some of his principles are the same liberal principles.
This article will examine why Thomas Hobbes’ philosophical ideas are important, and his explicit and implicit references is to geopolitical issues like state, country, territory, population, management and political organization of space, national security, national management and political patterns and the optimal rate of population, territory and jurisdiction and the subjects of this that during the present paper an attempt has been made to be addressed to investigation and explanation of the foundations and roots of these issues in the philosophical ideas of Thomas Hobbes , and there by impact on philosophical thought on political geographers, particularly among followers of determinism, such as Mackinder and Ratzl and also geographers who follow systematical and spatial attitudes and show to the fans of positivistic approach.
